2020新托福閱讀背景知識精選匯總

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新托福閱讀背景知識：夢境探討

夢境探討

夢是一種正常的生理、心理現(xiàn)象，正如入經(jīng)過白天活動(dòng)後需要睡眠讓身心獲得充份休息來消除疲勞。夢對心理方面具有調(diào)和與舒解的作用。假使沒有夢，許多人可能早就會得神經(jīng)病了。佛洛伊德認(rèn)為：做夢就是正常人發(fā)“神經(jīng)病”，而神經(jīng)病人就是白天睜著眼睛做“大夢”。夢境這種無意識心理活動(dòng)是人類的第二精神世界，怛光怪陸離夢境常使人產(chǎn)生迷惑。佛洛伊德在“夢的分析”書中有詳盡介紹。分析內(nèi)容大致分三類：

1.睡眠時(shí)軀體受到的刺激：睡眠中如太冷時(shí)，會夢見在冰天雪地。太熱時(shí)，會夢見處身火焰旁。太渴時(shí)，會夢見在找尋水源。膀胱脹滿時(shí)，會夢見找不到廁所。

2.日間活動(dòng)殘跡的作用：所謂“日有所思，夜有所夢”，人們還可在夢中繼續(xù)白天未完成的智力活動(dòng)。很多科學(xué)家的發(fā)明或發(fā)現(xiàn)是在夢境中突然領(lǐng)悟出來。

3.潛意識內(nèi)容的反映：佛氏把夢分“顯夢”內(nèi)容與“潛意”內(nèi)容 兩部分，前老好像“謎面”，後者好像“謎底”。精神分析醫(yī)生工作是根據(jù)“夢”的規(guī)律進(jìn)行解析來發(fā)掘做夢者被壓抑在潛意識內(nèi)的那些矛盾沖突，幫助病人正確解決其致病情結(jié)，從而使獲得痊愈。

佛洛伊德把夢分析工作歸納六類：1.象征化，2.移置，3.凝縮，4.投射，5.變形，6.二次加工。

此處從略不詳細(xì)介紹。夢境不單是受心理方面也受所在環(huán)境與生理狀況的影響，如睡在生疏的地方，睡中嗅到氣味、感到聲音等都會影響夢境。

新托福閱讀背景知識：夢的研究總結(jié)

壽命、智能的改善與“夢”

世界各地睡眠研究報(bào)告均顯示：壽命、智能與快波睡眠有關(guān)，資優(yōu)兒童及長壽人仕的快波睡眠較多，但快波睡眠是由先天遺傳決定的。從圖二我們可看到在快波睡眠時(shí)產(chǎn)生α波使?jié)撘庾R和意識之間閘門開放，人腦白天意識到感知到的經(jīng)驗(yàn)及舊的經(jīng)驗(yàn)程式互相比較修改，自行設(shè)計(jì)出新程式或修改舊程式用來制造蛋白質(zhì)改變大腦細(xì)胞的構(gòu)造，形成永久記憶，使更適合生理及心理層面的需要。快波睡眠是遺傳性主後天仍具有相當(dāng)可塑性，透過以下日常方法可幫助追求良好“睡與夢”，獲得較長快波睡眠是整體生命力的提升:

①按時(shí)早睡早起，配合人體“生物鐘”21點(diǎn)至22點(diǎn)入睡，早上五至六點(diǎn)起床，床褥不可過硬或過軟，睡房空氣清新及光線較暗，注意睡眠姿勢，陲前刷牙保持口腔清潔，睡前避免飲酒及進(jìn)食，有失眠人仕建議睡前用熱水洗腳，能刺激足部穴住，使容易入睡。

②優(yōu)美音樂能對大腦右半球起活躍作用，做夢是由右腦專職。所以平時(shí)多欣賞一些喜愛優(yōu)美音樂可改善左右腦半球腦電波的同步脅調(diào)性，對和緩消除緊張和疲勞及改善“睡與夢”有積極功效。

③香味對人體有心理效應(yīng)也有理化作用，茉莉花香會引起大腦產(chǎn)生期待α波，符合改善“夢”境。

⑤堅(jiān)持早餐要好，午飯要飽，晚飯要少，對大腦及睡眠有實(shí)際效用。從“睡與夢”角度證實(shí)少吃肉類，多吃谷物，蔬某、水果等含纖維素和碳水化合物的食物，能使睡眠很甜，可見素食能提高睡眠質(zhì)量，是值得大力提倡。

⑥保持樂觀情緒笑口常開，美“夢”自然與您同伴。

“夢”的研究及總結(jié)

由于“夢”都發(fā)生在快波睡眠“REM”快速眼球轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)期，最近加州大學(xué)學(xué)者史毅德利用電極黏貼在眼皮上，配合快波睡眠時(shí)腦電波一起處理能測知“夢”發(fā)生，當(dāng)做夢後腦電波轉(zhuǎn)變慢波睡眠時(shí)眼球也停止轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)，電子儀器即產(chǎn)生聲響使做夢者清醒及啟動(dòng)錄音機(jī)，使做夢者可將夢境所見用錄音機(jī)錄下才再入睡。史丹福大學(xué)學(xué)者伯茲利用特殊低頻“粉杠噪音”調(diào)制發(fā)光二極管眼罩，使睡者能在快波睡眠期誘發(fā)“神志清醒的夢”，做夢者可以意識性地左右夢的內(nèi)容，甚至自由導(dǎo)演出令自己滿意的情節(jié)與結(jié)局，把惡夢轉(zhuǎn)換成美夢或?qū)で蠼鉀Q日間疑難尋求創(chuàng)造性的答案。

“夢”的科學(xué)研究路途是漫長，展望將有一天能助我們真正認(rèn)識您自己，此時(shí)人類就能真正操縱自己的昨天今天明天。盡管本文對“睡與夢”的探討和改善不能使朋友們真正認(rèn)識您自己及“夢”，但承認(rèn)認(rèn)識您自己及“夢”的重要性，在探討過程中增強(qiáng)自我信念，至少我們已在這問題上前進(jìn)一步。

著名中國古代夢研究學(xué)者劉文英教授，總結(jié)中國古代文學(xué)、歷史、哲學(xué)文獻(xiàn)記載夢的資料編寫成《夢的迷信與夢的探索》一書，受到中外夢的研究學(xué)者重視。繁體字版將由臺灣曉園出版公司出版。牛頓雜志《科學(xué)與人》/王溢嘉時(shí)間專欄，對“人”與“夢”、“心靈”、“物”、“科學(xué)”等有極之生動(dòng)描繪。

新托福閱讀背景知識：夢的背景

夢的背景知識

1953年，美國芝加哥大學(xué)，柯立行曼教授和他的研究生阿賽斯基(Reitman’s & Asterisk)正在用腦電波測量的方法研究睡眠，阿賽斯基負(fù)責(zé)觀察被試----是一些嬰兒----睡眠時(shí)的腦電圖。阿賽斯基也許是個(gè)很細(xì)心的人，再不然就是嬰兒可愛的面龐吸引了他。他在觀察腦電圖的同時(shí)，還看了嬰兒的臉，遇然間他發(fā)現(xiàn)，每當(dāng)腦電上波出現(xiàn)快波時(shí)，嬰兒的眼球就會快束速運(yùn)動(dòng)，仿佛閉著眼睛在看什么東西。

這是怎么回事?柯立特曼和阿賽斯基猜想這或許和夢有關(guān)。他們把一些成人被試帶到實(shí)驗(yàn)室里，在他們頭上接到電極，然后讓他們睡覺。當(dāng)腦電圖出現(xiàn)快波時(shí)，他們的眼球也開始了快速運(yùn)動(dòng)。柯立特曼和阿賽斯基急忙喚醒他們，問他們是否做夢，他們回答說：是的。

而當(dāng)沒有快速眼動(dòng)的時(shí)候，被叫醒的被試大多數(shù)都說自己不是正在做夢。

由此，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)，夢和腦電圖的快波和快速眼動(dòng)是相聯(lián)系的。

研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，一夜的睡眠過程是兩種睡眠的交替，在較短的快波睡眠后，是時(shí)間較長的慢波睡眠，然后又是快波睡眠，如此循環(huán)。慢波睡眠又可劃分為4個(gè)階段或稱4期。因此更具體他說，睡眠的程序是：覺醒→慢波、期→2期→3期→4期→快波睡眠，為第一個(gè)周期，然后再次重復(fù)慢波睡眠期→2期→3期→4期→快波睡眠，如此循環(huán)。一般從一次快波睡眠到下一次快波睡眠的間隔時(shí)為70-120分鐘，平均90分鐘。一夜大致要循環(huán)4-6次。越到后半夜，快波睡眠越長、越慢睡眠越短。

由于快波睡眠期是人做夢的時(shí)期，我們由睡眠過程的腦電圖可推斷，一個(gè)人每夜一般會做4-6個(gè)夢，前半夜的夢較短，后半夜的夢較長。根據(jù)研究，整夜共有約1-2小時(shí)的時(shí)間人是在做夢。

由于每個(gè)人正常睡眠時(shí)間都超過一個(gè)循環(huán)的時(shí)間，由此可知每個(gè)人每晚都要做夢。有些人自稱自己睡覺從不做夢，是因?yàn)樗褋砗蟀岩估锏膲敉浟恕?/p>

早期的研究者們假設(shè)，只在在快波睡眠時(shí)才有夢。但是近斯的研究卻發(fā)現(xiàn)，慢波睡眠期也有夢。慢波睡眠的夢不像一般的夢那樣由形象構(gòu)，也不像一般的夢那么生動(dòng)富于象征性。例如，一個(gè)從慢波睡眠中剛醒來的人會說“我正在想著明天的考試”，研究者還發(fā)現(xiàn)，大多數(shù)的夢游和夢話都是出現(xiàn)在慢波睡眠期。

腦電波可以指示出人是否在做夢，因此腦電波測測量是研究夢的一個(gè)主要手段。

但是腦電波卻不能說明夢和睡眠的生理機(jī)制，更無法告訴我們夢是什么，關(guān)于夢的生理機(jī)制目前還有極少研究，但是對睡眠的生理機(jī)制卻有很多的研究，這對我們的理解夢有一定的參考性價(jià)值。

早期的生理學(xué)家巴甫洛夫認(rèn)為：睡眠就是大腦皮層神經(jīng)活動(dòng)停止，也即所謂抑制。夢是大腦皮神經(jīng)活動(dòng)停止時(shí)，偶爾出現(xiàn)皮層比做一個(gè)燃燒的火堆，那么按巴甫洛夫的觀點(diǎn)，睡眠就是這堆火熄滅了，而夢就是在木炭灰燼中偶爾亮起來的火星。

近十幾年來，通過對睡眠的生活機(jī)制的研究，人們知道巴甫洛夫的觀點(diǎn)是不準(zhǔn)確的。睡眠不是覺醒狀態(tài)的終結(jié)，不是神經(jīng)活動(dòng)的停止或休息，而是中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中另一種形式的活動(dòng)，是一個(gè)主動(dòng)的過程。

腦具有一種負(fù)責(zé)清醒----轉(zhuǎn)換的中樞，即網(wǎng)狀系統(tǒng)。這是腦于中一群彌散的神經(jīng)核團(tuán)，當(dāng)它受到刺激時(shí)會使熟睡者醒過來。而當(dāng)實(shí)驗(yàn)者破壞了實(shí)驗(yàn)動(dòng)物的網(wǎng)狀系統(tǒng)是時(shí)，這個(gè)動(dòng)物就會從此“一睡不醒”。

網(wǎng)狀系統(tǒng)的活動(dòng)受到來自上下兩方面的神經(jīng)沖動(dòng)的影響。上方，大腦皮層的活動(dòng)會影響它，因此思慮過多憂心忡忡的人會失眠。下主，來自感覺器官的神經(jīng)沖動(dòng)影響它，因此噪雜的聲音也會干擾人們的睡眠。除此之外，網(wǎng)狀系統(tǒng)的活動(dòng)還受到兩個(gè)神經(jīng)中樞的控制，一個(gè)叫中縫核，另一個(gè)叫藍(lán)斑。中縫核可導(dǎo)致慢波睡眠。藍(lán)斑則導(dǎo)致快波睡眠，從而與夢有關(guān)系。

藍(lán)斑產(chǎn)生的神經(jīng)興奮，主要通過腦的視神經(jīng)束。也許，這和人在夢中所見到的景色有關(guān)。另外，藍(lán)斑可能也起著在睡眠中抑制身軀運(yùn)動(dòng)的作用。

研究腦生化的科學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)，中縫核產(chǎn)生的神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)主要是5--羥色胺。在電損毀動(dòng)物中縫核前部后，腦5--羥色胺含量大減，同時(shí)，動(dòng)物的慢波睡眠也明顯減少，如果把5--羥色胺直接射到動(dòng)物的中縫核，則動(dòng)物的慢波睡眠延長，可見5--羥色胺和慢波睡眠有關(guān)。

藍(lán)斑區(qū)域可產(chǎn)生去甲腎上腺素，它與快波睡眠有關(guān)。在損毀動(dòng)物藍(lán)斑中后部時(shí)，去甲腎上腺素減少。同時(shí)，快波睡眠也減少。

去甲腎上腺素不僅與快波睡波有關(guān)，與覺醒狀態(tài)的維持也有關(guān)。當(dāng)腦內(nèi)去甲腎上腺素含量增加是，實(shí)驗(yàn)中的動(dòng)物會從睡夢中醒來。

同生物的研究，似乎可以引向這樣一種推測，快波睡眠和覺醒有相似之處，當(dāng)然，快波睡眠和覺醒決不是一回事。首先就是快波睡眠時(shí)運(yùn)動(dòng)是被抑制的。但是，和慢波睡眠相比，它和覺醒狀態(tài)在表現(xiàn)上共性還是稍多一些。它也有較多的心理活動(dòng)。

對睡眠，特別是與夢有關(guān)的快波睡眠的生理層面的研究，使我們對夢的作用有了一定的理解。如果用藥物或其它技術(shù)抑制快波睡眠，被試者的注意、學(xué)習(xí)記憶功能就會到損害，同時(shí)，情緒會變得焦慮，憤怒，并造成處理人際關(guān)系能力下降。由此提示，夢對改善學(xué)習(xí)與記憶，對改善情緒和社會能力可能有作用。

還有一些研究也發(fā)現(xiàn)，快波睡眠和夢可能與新信息的編碼有關(guān)。一些沒有見到過的新形象在夢里得到“復(fù)習(xí)”和“整理”，然后存入長時(shí)記憶庫中去，根據(jù)這種假說，嬰兒每天見到的新東西多，所以就需要多做夢，老年人難得會見到什么新東西，因此就不必多做夢。實(shí)際上，嬰兒快波睡眠的時(shí)間占總睡眠時(shí)間的比例也確實(shí)遠(yuǎn)大于老年人。實(shí)驗(yàn)也發(fā)現(xiàn)，在環(huán)境豐富的條件下飼養(yǎng)大白鼠快波睡眠的總時(shí)間和百分比都比其它大白鼠更長更多。由此提示，至少“復(fù)習(xí)整理新形象和新知識”是夢的作用之一。

新托福閱讀背景知識：漢謨拉比法典

The code of Hammurabi

Hammurabi was the ruler who chiefly established the greatness of Babylon, the world's first metropolis. Many relics of Hammurabi's reign ([1795-1750 BC]) have been preserved, and today we can study this remarkable King....as a wise law-giver in his celebrated code . . .

by far the most remarkable of the Hammurabi records is his code of laws, the earliest-known example of a ruler proclaiming publicly to his people an entire body of laws, arranged in orderly groups, so that all men might read and know what was required of them. The code was carved upon a black stone monument, eight feet high, and clearly intended to be reared in public view. This noted stone was found in the year 1901, not in Babylon, but in a city of the Persian mountains, to which some later conqueror must have carried it in triumph. It begins and ends with addresses to the gods. Even a law code was in those days regarded as a subject for prayer, though the prayers here are chiefly cursing of whoever shall neglect or destroy the law.

Yet even with this earliest set of laws, as with most things Babylonian, we find ourselves dealing with the end of things rather than the beginnings. Hammurabi's code was not really the earliest. The preceding sets of laws have disappeared, but we have found several traces of them, and Hammurabi's own code clearly implies their existence. He is but reorganizing a legal system long established.

新托福閱讀背景知識：植物適應(yīng)沙漠

Plant adaptation to the desert(背景材料)

Cactus adaptations.

The secret to the superior endurance of cacti lies in their adaptations. Over millions of years, through natural selection, only the strongest and best adapted species survived.

As you know, it is very dry in the desert. Plants that adapt to this are known as xerophytes (from zeros, dry and python, plant). There are plants that avoid the dry season by sprouting from seed just after the spring rain and growing very fast so that by the time the dry season comes, they have already produced a lot of seeds and died. These seeds lie on the soil for the dry season and sprout again in spring and the cycle repeats. Other xerophytes simply drop their leaves and stay dormant for the winter. But there is another special type of xerophytes which stores water in its fleshy tissues. Such plants are called succulents (from success, juicy). The cactus is a typical example of a succulent.

If you cut a cactus open, you see a juicy, slimy tissue. This is where the moisture is stored for the dry season. The part between the middle circle (and pith) and just under the very green part of the plant (or palisade parenchyma) just under the skin is allocated for the storage of water and food for the plant. This is a type of spongy parenchyma and can take up to 85% of the plant's volume. This is a major adaptation in the desert. Because the plant remains completely alive during the dry season and there is no need for it to dry up and lose everything, makes it possible for the plant to grow to large sizes. Another advantage is that the plant retains supplies (in the form of starch) for the winter so that it can flower right away in spring without accumulating more supplies (as most plants need to do in spring). The whole purpose of storing supplies for the winter is mostly to energize flowering in spring but it also lets the cactus start growing much sooner.

Flowering plants breathe and transpire (evaporate water from their surface) through closeable microscopic pores called stoats on the leaves or stems. To do this, their pores have to be open. In most plants these are open all day and on warm nights. But for cacti this is inconvenient as in daytime it is very hot and thus the plant would lose a lot of water through evaporation. So the cactus must close them in the daytime. But then it cannot breathe or photosynthesize (the process where sugars are made from carbon dioxide and water and releasing oxygen using the sun's energy). Succulents have an adaptation to that. Their stoats are closed during the day and are open at night, when it is not that hot and store carbon dioxide in its tissues as crass lean acid and then turn it back to carbon dioxide in the daytime. This process is called crass lean acid metabolism or CAM and it is a very smart way of respiring in the desert.

If we look at the outside of the plant, we notice that there is a tough leathery skin covering the plant, we can also notice the presence of ribs and spines and sometimes fur. These are all very smart adaptations. They serve mainly for surviving heat but are also used as defense.

The tough leathery skin is very impermeable to water, thus reducing evaporation from the surface of the plant. This skin often has a layer of plant wax on it which is often lightly colored (Pilosocereus azures is an example of a plant with such wax), white or blue. This reflects light and also reduces evaporation from the inside.

The ribs are special structures that are also used for enduring extreme heat. The ribs (and spines) trap wind so that the plant is enveloped in a layer of extremely still air, and this is a very important factor in reducing evaporation. On very windy days even the ribs don't help and cacti sometimes wilt because of high water loss.

The spines have different functions. They not only help shade the plant from the sun but are also known to help the cactus absorb water. They do it like this. On cool nights, dew settles on the spines of the plant. The spines are actually known to draw droplets of water towards the areole (the point out of which the spines grow) and here the droplets are absorbed. You can try this at home. Spray the plants with a very fine mist of water and watch what happens to the droplets that settle on the spines. They literally get attracted to the areole along the spine. The spine's structure allows them to do this. Even spines pointing downwards seem to suck the droplets up themselves.

Adaptation features are visible in this Pilosocereus glauchochorous. Notice the spines, ribs, fur and wax (the blue coloration). The top of a typically adapted plant.

Some plants have fur; sometimes all over the plant, sometimes only near the top. This fur shades the plant even further and is also known to attract water towards the areole. Some plants only have fur near the top. This is very beneficial because the top of the plant is very sensitive to sunlight, new tissues get formed there. Young areoles, with their spines not even wooded yet can get dried up completely in the sun. When an areole is born near the top of the plant, it starts developing spines. At this time the fur appears as well. This fur accompanies the areole as it moves down the plant, shading the growing point inside. By the time the areole is about 15cm away from the top, the fur wears out completely and the now inactive areole gets exposed to the sun.

As for the roots of cacti, they are also fully adapted to living in the desert. Some species (especially plants from very dry deserts) have very shallow root systems that spread very far from the plant. This way the plant can take advantage of tiny amounts of moisture from dew or light rain as the roots spread far away and are very shallow (less than 10cm deep while spreading up to 5 meters from the parent plant). On the other hand, some cacti send their roots deep down (like many Echinocacti) to reach the ground water.

Rainforest cacti often have aerial roots that can collect water all the time when it rains (and it rains very often in South American forests).

The shape of cacti itself is an adaptation. You may have noticed that cacti have a barrel like or candle like shape. This allows for maximum internal volume with a minimum surface area, which is also very smart adaption as a cactus can store a lot of water and have a small external surface area to reduce water loss.