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新托福閱讀背景知識

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新托福閱讀背景知識

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新托福閱讀背景知識:英屬北美殖民地的建立

The continent's first inhabitants walked into North America across what is now the Bering Strait from Asia. For the next 20,000 years these pioneering settlers were essentially left alone to develop distinct and dynamic cultures. In the modern US, their descendants include the Pueblo people in what is now New Mexico; Apache in Texas; Navajo in Arizona, Colorado and Utah; Hopi in Arizona; Crow in Montana; Cherokee in North Carolina; and Mohawk and Iroquois in New York State.

The Norwegian explorer Leif Eriksson was the first European to reach North America, some 500 years before a disoriented Columbus accidentally discovered 'Indians' in Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti) in 1492. By the mid-1550s, much of the Americas had been poked and prodded by a parade of explorers from Spain, Portugal, England and France.

The first colonies attracted immigrants looking to get rich quickly and return home, but they were soon followed by migrants whose primary goal was to colonize. The Spanish founded the first permanent European settlement in St Augustine, Florida, in 1565; the French moved in on Maine in 1602, and Jamestown, Virginia, became the first British settlement in 1607. The first Africans arrived as 'indentured laborers' with the Brits a year prior to English Puritan pilgrims' escape of religious persecution. The pilgrims founded a colony at Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts, in 1620 and signed the famous Mayflower Compact - a declaration of self-government that would later be echoed in the Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution. British attempts to assert authority in its 13 North American colonies led to the French and Indian War (1757-63). The British were victorious but were left with a nasty war debt, which they tried to recoup by imposing new taxes. The rallying cry 'no taxation without representation' united the colonies, which ceremoniously dumped caffeinated cargo overboard during the Boston Tea Party. Besieged British general Cornwallis surrendered to American commander George Washington five years later at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. In the 19th century, America's mantra was 'Manifest Destiny.' A combination of land purchases, diplomacy and outright wars of conquest had by 1850 given the US roughly its present shape. In 1803, Napoleon dumped the entire Great Plains for a pittance, and Spain chipped in with Florida in 1819. The Battle of the Alamo during the 1835 Texan Revolution paved the way for Texan independence from Mexico, and the war with Mexico (1846-48) secured most of the southwest, including California.

The systematic annihilation of the buffalo hunted by the Plains Indians, encroachment on their lands, and treaties not worth the paper they were written on led to Native Americans being herded into reservations, deprived of both their livelihoods and their spiritual connection to their land. Nineteenth-century immigration drastically altered the cultural landscape as settlers of predominantly British stock were joined by Central Europeans and Chinese, many attracted by the 1849 gold rush in California. The South remained firmly committed to an agrarian life heavily reliant on African American slave labor. Tensions were on the rise when abolitionist Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860. The South seceded from the Union, and the Civil War, by far the bloodiest war in America's history, began the following year. The North prevailed in 1865, freed the slaves and introduced universal adult male suffrage. Lincoln's vision for reconstruction, however, died with his assassination. America's trouncing of the Spaniards in 1898 marked the USA's ascendancy as a superpower and woke the country out of its isolationist slumber.

The US still did its best not to get its feet dirty in WWI's trenches, but finally capitulated in 1917, sending over a million troops to help sort out the pesky Germans. Postwar celebrations were cut short by Prohibition in 1920, which banned alcohol in the country. The 1929 stock-market crash signaled the start of the Great Depression and eventually brought about Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal, which sought to lift the country back to prosperity. After the Japanese dropped in uninvited on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the US played a major role in defeating the Axis powers. Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 not only ended the war with Japan, but ushered in the nuclear age. The end of WWII segued into the Cold War - a period of great domestic prosperity and a surface uniformity belied by paranoia and betrayal. Politicians like Senator Joe McCarthy took advantage of the climate to fan anticommunist flames, while the USSR and USA stockpiled nuclear weapons and fought wars by proxy in Korea, Africa and Southeast Asia. Tensions between the two countries reached their peak in 1962 during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

The 1960s was a decade of profound social change, thanks largely to the Civil Rights movement, Vietnam War protests and the discovery of sex, drugs and rock & roll. The Civil Rights movement gained momentum in 1955 with a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama. As a nonviolent mass protest movement, it aimed at breaking down segregation and regaining the vote for disfranchised Southern blacks. The movement peaked in 1963 with Martin Luther King Jar’s 'I have a dream speech' in Washington, DC, and the passage of the landmark 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Rights Act. Meanwhile, America's youth were rejecting the conformity of the previous decade, growing their hair long and smoking lots of dope. 'Tune in, turn on, drop out' was the mantra of a generation who protested heavily (and not disinterestedly) against the war in Vietnam. Assassinations of prominent political leaders - John and Robert Kennedy, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jar - took a little gloss off the party, and the American troops mired in Vietnam took off the rest. NASA's moon landing in 1969 did little to restore national pride. In 1974 Richard Nixon became the first US president to resign from office, due to his involvement in the cover-up of the Watergate burglaries, bringing American patriotism to a new low.

The 1970s and '80s were a period of technological advancement and declining industrialism. Self image took a battering at the hands of Iranian Ayatollah Khomeini. A conservative backlash, symbolized by the election and popular two-term presidency of actor Ronald Reagan, sought to put some backbone in the country. The US then concentrated on bullying its poor neighbors in Central America and the Caribbean, meddling in the affairs of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama and Grenada. The collapse of the Soviet Bloc's 'Evil Empire' in 1991 left the US as the world's sole superpower, and the Gulf War in 1992 gave George Bush the opportunity to lead a coalition supposedly representing a 'new world order' into battle against Iraq. Domestic matters, such as health reform, gun ownership, drugs, racial tension, and gay rights, balancing the budget, the tenacious Whitewater scandal and the Monica Lewinsky 'Fornicate' affair tended to overshadow international concerns during the Clinton administration. In a bid to kick start its then-ailing economy, the USA signed NAFTA, a free-trade agreement with Canada and Mexico, in 1993, invaded Haiti in its role of upholder of democracy in 1994, committed thousands of troops to peacekeeping operations in Bosnia in 1995, hosted the Olympics in 1996 and enjoyed, over the past few years, the fruits of a bull market on Wall St. The 2000 presidential election made history by being the most highly contested race in the nation's history.

The Democratic candidate, Al Gore, secured the majority of the popular vote but lost the election when all of Florida's electoral college votes went to George W Bush, who was ahead of Gore in that state by only 500 votes. Demands for recounts, a ruling by the Florida Supreme Court in favor of partial recounts, and a handful of lawsuits generated by both parties were brought to a halt when the US Supreme Court split along party lines and ruled that all recounts should cease. After five tumultuous weeks, Bush was declared the winner. The early part of Bush's presidency saw the US face international tension, with renewed violence in the Middle East, a spy-plane standoff with China and nearly global disapproval of US foreign policy with regard to the environment. On the domestic front, a considerably weakened economy provided challenges for national policymakers. Whether the US can continue to hold onto its dominant position on the world stage and rejuvenate its economy remains to be seen.

英屬北美殖民地的建立(1607--1733)

北美洲原始居民為印第安人。16-18世紀(jì),正在進(jìn)行資本原始積累的西歐各國相繼入侵北美洲。法國人建立了新法蘭西(包括圣勞倫斯流域下游大潮區(qū),密西西比河流域等處);西班牙人建立了新西班牙(包括墨西哥和美國西南部的廣大地區(qū))。1607年,英國建立了第1個殖民據(jù)點(diǎn)—詹姆士城,此后在大西洋沿岸陸續(xù)建立了13個殖民地。到達(dá)殖民地的大多數(shù)是西歐貧苦的勞動人民,也有貴族、地主、資產(chǎn)階級,以英國人、愛爾蘭人、德意志人和荷蘭人最多。移民中有逃避戰(zhàn)禍和宗教迫害者,有自愿和非自愿的“契約奴”以及乞丐、罪犯;還有從非洲被販運(yùn)來的黑人。

新托福閱讀背景知識:“五月花”號

討論“五月花號”,先談?wù)勈录l(fā)生的背景,不僅很有必要,而且很有意義。它可以讓我們看清事件的本質(zhì),了解人類歷史上的專制、暴政的荒謬及其對渴望自由的人類精神的無奈。這不僅是北美移民昭示天下的真理,它也證明了這個星球上人類渴望自由的力量。

“五月花號”事件發(fā)生的背景簡略說分兩個方面,一個是精神方面的,即發(fā)生于十六世紀(jì)初的宗教改革。它由德國神學(xué)博士、神父馬丁·路德于1517年10月31日發(fā)難。這一天,路德神父在維登堡教堂張貼反對羅馬教廷和教皇的《九十五條論綱》,引發(fā)了一場震撼整個歐洲的宗教革命。馬丁·路德的宗教改革不是要廢除宗教,而是要改革__。他認(rèn)為,人類靠信仰得救,這叫做“因信稱義”。根據(jù)這一原則,信徒不需要在與上帝之間有個教皇,也不需要那么多儀式,更不需要買贖罪符。這樣,教士也沒理由享受特權(quán),所有信徒平等。他提出世俗權(quán)力歸君主,因?yàn)椤熬龣?quán)是上帝委派”。這種主張顯然表達(dá)了資產(chǎn)階級要求建立近代民族國家的愿望。根據(jù)馬丁·路德的宗教觀建立的教會被稱為新教。

在馬丁·路德發(fā)起宗教改革的同時,另一個宗教改革的中心在瑞士出現(xiàn)。其領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人物為烏爾利希·慈溫利。此人宣傳宗教改革的思想,在時間上不晚于馬丁·路德,觀點(diǎn)比路德更激進(jìn)。但是,他去世早,身后名聲不如路德大。慈溫利原是瑞士天主教會的神父。他1516年開始宣傳宗教改革思想,1519年在蘇黎世大教堂傳教,反對教皇在瑞士出售贖罪券。1522年慈溫利與教皇公開決裂。1523年至1524年1月,他三次參加蘇黎世宗教問題大辯論,獲得蘇黎世州政府的支持。慈溫利反對依賴君主、諸侯,反對天主教的教階制、偶像崇拜、繁文縟節(jié),要求解散修道院。他主張的新教會實(shí)行共和制。1531年,慈溫利在與天主教支持的奧地利政府軍作戰(zhàn)中陣亡。在慈溫利死后不久,有一個名叫約翰·加爾文的法國新教徒,因受法國政府迫害流亡到瑞士。1536年,加爾文發(fā)表《__信仰典范》。加爾文與路德一樣,主張“信仰得救”,建立清廉的教會。但他與慈溫利一樣,比路德更激進(jìn),主張按共和制的原則建立教會。他用五年時間的努力成為日內(nèi)瓦教會的領(lǐng)袖,把日內(nèi)瓦變成一個政教合一的神權(quán)國家。在日內(nèi)瓦,加爾文實(shí)行嚴(yán)厲的統(tǒng)治。在取消一切浮華宗教儀式的同時,取締了賭博,也禁止所有的文藝娛樂活動,乃至思想自由。因此,曾引發(fā)一場卡斯特利奧反抗加爾文的悲壯斗爭。關(guān)于這一事件,著名作家斯·茨威格曾寫過一本小冊子叫《異端的權(quán)利》,提出了一個重要命題:宗教寬容、思想寬容問題。不過,加爾文的新教思想推動了尼德蘭革命,促成了世界上第一個資產(chǎn)階級共和國—荷蘭共和國的誕生。我花一些時間來介紹宗教改革,主要因?yàn)榘绹拿髟趦?nèi)的西方近代文明,受宗教改革出現(xiàn)的新教思想影響很大。著名思想家馬克斯·韋伯曾為此專門寫過一本《新教倫理與資本主義精神》。

歐洲宗教改革思潮傳入英國,英國國王亨利八世因與羅馬教皇的矛盾,而接受新教思想實(shí)行宗教改革。在歐洲,德國、瑞士等國的宗教改革是自下而上推行的。而英國,由于國王與教皇的沖突,使得英國的宗教改革由國家自上而下推行。1533年,英王下令與羅馬教廷決裂,禁止英國教會向羅馬納年貢。1534年,英國國會通過“至尊法案”,宣布英王為英國教會最高首腦,將任命教會教職、召集宗教會議的權(quán)力轉(zhuǎn)歸國王,又把宗教法庭改為國王法庭。改革后的宗教稱為英國國教,保留了天主教的主教制度、儀式和重要教義。自亨利八世至愛德華六世統(tǒng)治期間的二十年,由于后來加爾文教的影響,英國國教與天主教更加疏遠(yuǎn)。但是,繼愛德華六世之后上臺的瑪麗女五是個虔誠的天主教徒。她曾嫁給西班牙國王腓力二世,即位后奉行親西班牙政策,恢復(fù)天主教,迫害新教徒。她掌權(quán)五年,燒死三百多個宗教“異端”。等到瑪麗女王下臺,伊麗莎白女王上臺重申宗教改革時,國內(nèi)已經(jīng)形成崇奉加爾文教要求徹底改革國教的清教派。英國歷史上所謂的“清教徒”,是指要求徹底清除國教中天主教殘余的加爾文教徒。這批人至十六世紀(jì)末十七世紀(jì)初,也即“五月花號”事件發(fā)生前夕分成兩派:一派是溫和派,稱長老會派,主張?jiān)谟⒓訝栁慕棠菢拥慕虝砷L老會管理教會;另一派為更激進(jìn)的獨(dú)立派,他們反對教會隸屬于國家,要求各教區(qū)的教會完全獨(dú)立,信徒自治管理?!拔逶禄ㄌ枴敝械那褰掏街饕獙儆诤笠慌?。這一派的自治管理理念,在移民北美后,對英屬北美殖民地的政治發(fā)展有重大影響。由于清教徒改革國教的主張,否定英王對宗教的掌控權(quán),與英國國王相抵觸,所以即使與羅馬教廷有沖突的伊麗莎白女王及其后的英國國王,也都對清教徒實(shí)行高壓政策。在這種情況下,清教徒們一則為了堅(jiān)持自己的信仰,另則為了躲避國內(nèi)鎮(zhèn)壓,紛紛潛逃出境。因?yàn)楫?dāng)年荷蘭是加爾文教占上風(fēng)的國家,英國清教徒在出逃北美前,首選地一般都是荷蘭?!拔逶禄ㄌ枴鄙系那褰掏骄驮?607—1608年期間,從英國諾丁漢郡逃往荷蘭,在荷蘭生活了十一二年。后來這些人才從荷蘭潛回英國普利茅斯,再從普利茅斯乘“五月花號”移民北美的。其間的曲折可謂一言難盡。這是“五月花號”事件政治、思想、精神層面的背景。

另一方面,與“五月花號”事件相關(guān)聯(lián)的是空間方面的背景。所謂空間背景,是指“五月花號”乘客出逃的空間條件。空間條件,指逃跑者可以逃跑的地方。如果沒有哥倫布于1492—1493年發(fā)現(xiàn)新大陸,以及此后一百多年的歐洲向美洲移民,“五月花號”是不可能選擇北美作為逃亡地的。正是美洲大陸的發(fā)現(xiàn),為“五月花號”以及其他清教徒堅(jiān)持自己信仰,躲避宗教迫害,實(shí)現(xiàn)自己建設(shè)“上帝之城”的夢想提供了實(shí)踐空間。

前面提到“五月花號”的種.種爭議,但是,有一點(diǎn)是不爭的事實(shí),即歷史上確實(shí)發(fā)生過這件事。按一般記載,這件事發(fā)生在1620年9月6日—11月9日(另說:9月16日—11月19日),一艘名叫“五月花號”的木帆船,載著一百零一名英國移民從英國普利茅斯出發(fā),橫渡大西洋,駛往北美洲今天的馬薩諸塞灣。從有關(guān)史料看,這批移民以受迫害的英國清教徒為主。這些清教徒屬于一個叫萊登彌撒團(tuán)的成員,后來被稱為朝圣者。他們約占“五月花號”全體成員的三分之二。這部分人去北美的目的很明確,是要實(shí)現(xiàn)清教徒的理想,建設(shè)一個理想國,一個沒有君主專制、沒有腐敗的民治共同體。此外,還有一部分契約奴。契約奴,指無錢前往北美,與一些英國的公司或商人簽立契約的人。這些人有窮人或落魄貴族想到北美發(fā)財(cái)?shù)模灿刑臃?。他們簽立契約后,由公司或商人為他們支付從英國到北美的旅費(fèi),有的還提供途中和抵達(dá)目的地一段時間的花銷。契約奴抵達(dá)目的地后在四至七年內(nèi)用勞動償還。在此期間內(nèi),契約奴可以被買賣?!拔逶禄ㄌ枴鄙系倪@些人經(jīng)過六十五天的驚濤駭浪,在海上航行三千英里,抵達(dá)北美洲后來被稱為科德角的海灣。11月的北半球寒風(fēng)凜冽。想想這些人為了自由、為了信仰竟然義無反顧地拋棄文明世界,投身荒野,踏上荒無人煙、一無所有的海灘,其悲壯的情景不僅是歐美歷史上的驕傲,也應(yīng)是整個人類文明史上的驕傲。那是人類反抗君主專制、爭取信仰自由的壯麗篇章。

新托福閱讀背景知識:獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭

獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭 (1774—1783)

英法為爭奪海上霸權(quán)和掠奪殖民地而進(jìn)行的七年戰(zhàn)爭,以英國勝利告終。英國在北美接管了加拿大,控制了密西西比河以東的新法蘭西,對北美殖民地全面加強(qiáng)控制,宣告阿巴拉契亞山脈以西為王室產(chǎn)業(yè),禁止殖民地人民染指;并征收重稅,嚴(yán)厲緝私,限制經(jīng)濟(jì)活動,嚴(yán)重?fù)p害了殖民地各階層人民的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益。從1619年弗吉尼亞建立議會起,各殖民地相繼成立議會,與英國相抗衡,1765年9個殖民地舉行抗議印花稅大會,掀起反抗怒潮。

18世紀(jì)70年代英國進(jìn)一步執(zhí)行高壓政策,1770年波士頓慘案發(fā)生。1773年通過了茶稅法,引起波士頓傾茶事件。1774年頒布了5項(xiàng)不可容忍的法令(諸如封閉波士頓港,增派英國駐軍,取消馬薩諸塞自治權(quán),確立英國對殖民地的司法權(quán)等),從政治上軍事上加緊對殖民地的控制與鎮(zhèn)壓。1772-1774年,各殖民地普遍成立通訊委員會,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)抗英斗爭。1774年9月5日,除佐治亞外的各殖民地代表在費(fèi)城召開了第1屆大陸會議,通過了和英國斷絕一切貿(mào)易關(guān)系的決議,繼而通過“關(guān)于殖民地權(quán)利和怨恨的宣言”,向英王呈遞請?jiān)笗?775年4月18日,在波士頓附近的列克星敦和康科德,殖民地愛國者打響了反抗的槍聲,揭開了獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭的序幕。5月,第2屆大陸會議召開。次年7月大陸會議通過獨(dú)立宣言,宣布13個殖民地脫離英國獨(dú)立。

獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭開始時,雙方實(shí)力懸殊,戰(zhàn)爭進(jìn)行了8年。到1781年10月,美、法聯(lián)軍攻下英軍最后據(jù)點(diǎn)約克鎮(zhèn),獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭基本結(jié)束。1783年英美簽訂巴黎和約。獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭時期涌現(xiàn)出一批杰出的政治家,如大陸軍的總司令G.華盛頓、《獨(dú)立宣言》的起草人T.杰斐遜、外交家B.富蘭克林、文化戰(zhàn)士T.潘恩。

印花稅條例 (Stamp Act)

波士頓慘案 (Boston Massacre)

大陸會議 (Continental Congress)

獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭 (War of independence)

獨(dú)立宣言 (Declaration of Independence)

獨(dú)立的民族主權(quán)國家的建成(1781-1814)

在戰(zhàn)爭過程中,大陸會議制訂了邦聯(lián)條例,1781-1787年13州組成了邦聯(lián)國會,宣布成立美利堅(jiān)共和國。1787年,在費(fèi)城召開制憲會議,大州和小州的代表經(jīng)過爭論,同意每州均選出兩名參議員;在蓄奴制問題上,北部對南部作出了重大妥協(xié),默認(rèn)奴隸制存在,在征稅及分配眾議員席位方面,南部黑奴均以3/5的人口計(jì)算。會議最后制定了憲法草案。這是世界上第1部成文憲法。1788年6月由9個州批準(zhǔn)生效。根據(jù)憲法,美國建成立法、行政、司法三權(quán)分立、相互制衡的聯(lián)邦制國家。后又增加了憲法前10條修正案(后即以“權(quán)利法案”著稱)。該法案于1791年12月,經(jīng)11個州批準(zhǔn)生效。

1789年聯(lián)邦政府成立。4月,華盛頓就任美國首屆總統(tǒng)(1792年連任)。在國內(nèi)外政策出現(xiàn)分歧的過程中,財(cái)政部長A.漢密爾頓派組織了聯(lián)邦黨,主張中央集權(quán),外交上親英,控制了聯(lián)邦政府的權(quán)力。國務(wù)卿T.杰斐遜派主張維護(hù)國內(nèi)人民民主權(quán)利,同情法國革命,組織了民主共和黨。1793年華盛頓在歐洲列強(qiáng)聯(lián)合干涉法國革命時,采取中立政策。次年11月,聯(lián)邦政府和英國簽訂了損害美國主權(quán)的杰伊條約。親英和親法成為聯(lián)邦黨和民主共和黨在外交政策上的分野。在內(nèi)政方面,聯(lián)邦政府制定關(guān)稅條例,建立銀行,穩(wěn)定經(jīng)濟(jì)。

1801年,民主共和黨T.杰斐遜出任總統(tǒng)。杰斐遜政府廢除上述4項(xiàng)法令,削減開支,減輕稅收,取消酒稅,鼓勵農(nóng)產(chǎn)品出口。1803年從法國手中購買了面積達(dá)200多萬平方公里的路易斯安那。英國一直不甘心喪失北美殖民地。英艦在公海上繼續(xù)攔截美國船只,強(qiáng)制征用美國海員。為維護(hù)航海自由,1812—1814年美國進(jìn)行了第2次對英戰(zhàn)爭。除海戰(zhàn)外,優(yōu)勢在英軍方面。1814年8月,英軍曾攻占華盛頓首府,焚燒總統(tǒng)府及會。但隨后美國取得勝利。1814年12月,英美在今比利時的根特簽訂和約。這次戰(zhàn)爭使美國得以擺脫英國政治上的控制和經(jīng)濟(jì)上的滲透,成為一個完全獨(dú)立的民族主權(quán)國家。

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